THE EVIDENCE BASE

Carphedon references: the verified source library

Every factual claim on this site traces to one of these records. Each entry shows its evidence class, what it supports and what it does not show; citation markers like [2] throughout the site link here. Null, mixed and unfavourable results are listed at equal prominence — and one entry (the 2001 nicotinic paper) is included purely as a misattribution guard.

All citations live-verified against PubMed, the WADA Prohibited List, PubChem and the IOC/AP archives on 2026-08-15.

Naming, chemistry and history

[1]Chemistry database record2026

PubChem (NCBI) PubChem compound record, CID 132441 (2026)

PubChem CID 132441 (phenylpiracetam). National Center for Biotechnology Information. Record consulted 2026-08-15.

Original source ↗

What it supports: The chemical identity anchor: IUPAC name 2-(2-oxo-4-phenylpyrrolidin-1-yl)acetamide, formula C12H14N2O2, molecular weight 218.25, CAS 77472-70-9, UNII-99QW5JU66Y, and the synonym trail — carphedon, carphedone, karfedon, 4-phenylpiracetam, Phenotropil, and "Fonturacetam [INN]".
What it does not show: A curated database record: names in the synonym list are depositor-supplied, and the record says nothing about efficacy.

[2]Synthesis paper (citation-verified)1980

Glozman OM, Morozov IS, Zhmurenko LA, Zagorevskii VA Khim-Farm Zh 1980;14(11):43 (Engl. Pharm Chem J 1980;14:776) (1980)

Glozman OM, Morozov IS, Zhmurenko LA, Zagorevskii VA. Khim-Farm Zh. 1980;14(11):43 (Engl. transl. Pharm Chem J. 1980;14:776). Citation verified in the Veinberg 2015 reference list.

Original source ↗

What it supports: The earliest located literature reference: the founding synthetic paper, placing the molecule in Zagorevskii’s group (All-Union Research Chemical-Pharmaceutical Institute lineage) three years before the first pharmacology paper.
What it does not show: Verified as a citation only — the 1980 text itself was not readable in the 2026-08-15 pass; the molecule’s origin story rests on it indirectly.

[3]First pharmacological description1983

Bobkov IuG, Morozov IS, Glozman OM, Nerobkova LN, Zhmurenko LA Biull Eksp Biol Med, 95(4):50-53 (1983)

Bobkov IuG, Morozov IS, Glozman OM, Nerobkova LN, Zhmurenko LA. [Pharmacological characteristics of a new phenyl analog of piracetam—4-phenylpiracetam]. Biull Eksp Biol Med. 1983;95(4):50-53. PMID: 6403074.

Original source ↗ · PMID 6403074

What it supports: The first published scientific description of the molecule — under the name 4-phenylpiracetam, “a new phenyl analog of piracetam”. The carphedon name belongs to the same Russian development trail.
What it does not show: A 1983 animal-pharmacology paper in Russian; it establishes the molecule and its class, not any human effect.

[4]Analytical method1999

Kim S, et al. Analyst, 124(11):1559-1562 (1999)

Kim S, et al. Determination of carphedon in human urine by solid-phase microextraction–gas chromatography. Analyst. 1999;124(11):1559-1562. PMID: 10746314.

Original source ↗ · PMID 10746314

What it supports: Proof that “carphedon” was the drug’s working name in the peer-reviewed analytical literature as late as 1999 — a GC-NPD urine method (LOD 0.01 µg/mL) written explicitly for stimulant doping analysis, one year after the 1998 sport prohibition.
What it does not show: An analytical chemistry method; it documents detection and the name in use, not any physiological effect.

[5]Review (mechanism + origin)2023

Voronina TA Neurochemical Journal, 17(2):180-188 (2023)

Voronina TA. Neurochemical Journal. 2023;17(2):180-188. doi: 10.1134/S1819712423020198.

Original source ↗ · doi:10.1134/S1819712423020198

What it supports: The development-origin statement this site relies on: phenylpiracetam “was developed at the Institute of Biomedical Problems as a new generation psychostimulant that can increase the mental and physical performance of astronauts at various stages of space flights” — and the receptor-profile summary (α4β2 nAChR binding; no binding to GABA-A, GABA-B, dopamine or 5-HT2 receptors in the Russian work).
What it does not show: A peer-reviewed review statement by a doyenne of Russian nootropics pharmacology — it documents the development purpose, not in-flight use; the full text was read live on 2026-08-15.

[6]Stereochemistry study2015

Veinberg G, Vavers E, Orlova N, et al. Chem Heterocycl Compd, 51(7):601-606 (2015)

Veinberg G, Vavers E, Orlova N, et al. Stereochemistry of phenylpiracetam and its methyl derivative: improvement of the pharmacological profile. Chem Heterocycl Compd. 2015;51(7):601-606. doi: 10.1007/s10593-015-1747-9.

Original source ↗ · doi:10.1007/s10593-015-1747-9

What it supports: Latvian Institute of Organic Synthesis stereochemistry work on phenylpiracetam enantiomers — and the corroborating sentence that phenylpiracetam “was originally designed as a nootropic drug for the sustenance and improvement of the physical condition and cognition abilities of Soviet space crews”.
What it does not show: Title, authors and venue verified live; the quoted sentence reached this site through secondary quotation (the Springer abstract was paywalled in the 2026-08-15 pass).

Mechanism and pharmacology

[7]Stereoselective pharmacology2011

Zvejniece L, et al. Eur J Pharmacol (Latvian Institute of Organic Synthesis) (2011)

Zvejniece L, et al. Investigation into stereoselective pharmacological activity of phenotropil. 2011. PMID: 21689376.

Original source ↗ · PMID 21689376

What it supports: The racemate fact and the enantiomer split: Phenotropil “is clinically used in its racemic form”; the R-enantiomer improves memory in passive avoidance (the S does not), antidepressant and locomotor effects rely on both enantiomers, and brain concentrations are similar — potency differences are pharmacodynamic, not exposure.
What it does not show: Animal work (rats/mice); it maps enantiomer pharmacology in rodents, not in patients.

[8]DAT pharmacology (Merz)2014

Sommer S, et al. (Merz Pharmaceuticals) Int J Neuropsychopharmacol, 17(12):2045-2056 (2014)

Sommer S, et al. MRZ-9547 (R-phenylpiracetam), an atypical dopamine reuptake inhibitor. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 2014;17(12):2045-2056. PMID: 24964269.

Original source ↗ · PMID 24964269

What it supports: The mechanism anchor: the R-enantiomer (Merz code MRZ-9547) binds the dopamine transporter (DAT binding IC50 4.82 µM; uptake inhibition IC50 14.5 µM; ~38× weaker at NET), moderately stimulates striatal dopamine release, and increased effort-based responding in rats beyond methylphenidate/modafinil comparators. Merz investigated it for fatigue and motivational deficits; the S-enantiomer (MRZ-9546) is far weaker (DAT Ki 34.8 µM).
What it does not show: Recombinant-cell and rodent data from an industrial programme whose later development was never reported; no human occupancy data exist.

[9]Enantiomer pharmacology2017

Zvejniece L, et al. Pharmacol Biochem Behav, 160:21-29 (2017)

Zvejniece L, et al. S-phenylpiracetam, a selective DAT inhibitor, reduces body weight gain without influencing locomotor activity. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 2017;160:21-29. PMID: 28743458.

Original source ↗ · PMID 28743458

What it supports: The enantiomer paradox: S-phenylpiracetam — described as a selective dopamine transporter inhibitor that does not influence norepinephrine or serotonin receptors — reduced weight gain in obese Zucker rats and Western-diet mice without stimulating locomotion.
What it does not show: Animal metabolic models; the finding does not translate into any human weight-management claim.

[10]Target-profiling screen2020

Zvejniece L, et al. Inflammopharmacology, 28(5):1283-1292 (2020)

Zvejniece L, et al. R-phenylpiracetam target profiling and anti-inflammatory activity. Inflammopharmacology. 2020;28(5):1283-1292. PMID: 32279140.

Original source ↗ · PMID 32279140

What it supports: The cleanest mechanistic statement available: in a radioligand target-profiling screen, DAT was the only significant molecular target found for R-phenylpiracetam; the compound reached mouse brain within 15 minutes of intraperitoneal and oral dosing, and showed anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects in LPS endotoxaemia and carrageenan/formalin models.
What it does not show: Mouse data; “only significant target” means within the panel screened — and no human target-engagement study exists.

[11]Receptor binding2011

Firstova YY, et al. Neurochemical Journal, 28(2):130-141 (2011)

Firstova YY, et al. Neurochem J. 2011;28(2):130-141. doi: 10.1134/S1819712411020048.

Original source ↗ · doi:10.1134/S1819712411020048

What it supports: The nicotinic-receptor data point: phenylpiracetam binds α4β2 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in rodent brain cortex with IC50 5.86 µM — restated by Voronina 2023 alongside Kovalev 2007.
What it does not show: Micromolar binding in rodent cortical tissue; whether human exposure reaches these concentrations is unknown (human pharmacokinetics are unpublished).

[12]Class review2010

Malykh AG, Sadaie MR Drugs, 70(3):287-312 (2010)

Malykh AG, Sadaie MR. Piracetam and piracetam-like drugs: from basic science to novel clinical applications to CNS disorders. Drugs. 2010;70(3):287-312. PMID: 20166767.

Original source ↗ · PMID 20166767

What it supports: The racetam family tree: piracetam parent compound, phenylpiracetam in subgroup 1 (used in humans) — with the class-level honesty this site adopts: “phenylpiracetam is more potent than piracetam and is used for a wider range of indications”, while “the modes of action of piracetam and most of its derivatives remain an enigma” and piracetam itself “exhibited no long-term benefits for the treatment of mild cognitive impairments”.
What it does not show: A class review, not a phenylpiracetam trial; the potency statement rests on animal data and Russian open studies.

[13]Classic racetam review1994

Gouliaev AH, Senning A Brain Res Rev, 19(2):180-222 (1994)

Gouliaev AH, Senning A. Piracetam and other structurally related nootropics. Brain Res Rev. 1994;19(2):180-222. PMID: 8061686.

Original source ↗ · PMID 8061686

What it supports: The foundational scepticism: piracetam-like nootropics show no high affinity for any tested receptor (with nefiracetam/GABA-A the exception) — the reason racetam mechanism claims deserve scrutiny, then and now.
What it does not show: A 1994 review predating the DAT and nAChR findings; it frames the class problem rather than this molecule’s later data.

[14]Misattribution guard2001

Zhao X, et al. Mol Pharmacol (2001)

Zhao X, et al. Mol Pharmacol. 2001. PMID: 11259610.

Original source ↗ · PMID 11259610

What it supports: Listed so it cannot be miscited: this often-quoted nicotinic-receptor modulation paper is about nefiracetam and aniracetam — NOT phenylpiracetam. Sites that use it to support a carphedon nAChR claim are citing the wrong molecule.
What it does not show: Included as a negative attribution; it supports no carphedon claim.

Human clinical evidence

[15]Meta-analysis (11 studies)2025

Devlikamova FI, Safina DR Zh Nevrol Psikhiatr Im S S Korsakova, 125(2):69-79 (2025)

Devlikamova FI, Safina DR. [Fonturacetam (Actitropil) in asthenia: systematic review and meta-analysis]. Zh Nevrol Psikhiatr Im S S Korsakova. 2025;125(2):69-79. doi: 10.17116/jnevro202512502169. PMID: 40047835.

Original source ↗ · doi:10.17116/jnevro202512502169 · PMID 40047835

What it supports: The first meta-analysis of the molecule: 11 studies, 549 patients with asthenia (mean age 45.9), all on 200 mg/day for one month; mean MFI-20 asthenia score fell 16.3 points (95% CI 8.85–23.85; p<0.0001); side-effect frequency averaged 5.5%, described as transient and regressing within a week of continued treatment.
What it does not show: A meta-analysis of mostly small, single-country (Russian) studies, published in the journal of record for the manufacturer’s market; the abstract reports no placebo-pooled estimate — treat the effect size with caution.

[16]Double-blind RCT · n=90 · MIXED2014

Grebeniuk OV, Zhukova NG, Alifirova VM Zh Nevrol Psikhiatr Im S S Korsakova, 114(11 Pt 2):27-31 (2014)

Grebeniuk OV, Zhukova NG, Alifirova VM. [The efficacy of add-on treatment with phenotropil in adult patients with locally-induced epilepsy]. Zh Nevrol Psikhiatr Im S S Korsakova. 2014;114(11 Pt 2):27-31. doi: 10.17116/jnevro201411411227-31. PMID: 25591651.

Original source ↗ · doi:10.17116/jnevro201411411227-31 · PMID 25591651

What it supports: The ONLY double-blind placebo-controlled trial of phenylpiracetam in the indexed literature: 90 adults with symptomatic locally-induced epilepsy, phenotropil 100 or 200 mg versus placebo added to standard antiepileptics; seizure frequency and cognition improved in patients without epileptiform EEG abnormalities.
What it does not show: The mixed result is published in the abstract itself: the drug did not decrease the negative effects of standard antiepileptic therapy in 40% of patients. One trial, one indication, one country.

[17]Open observational · n=11702014

Fedin AI, et al. (TRIUMPH program) Zh Nevrol Psikhiatr Im S S Korsakova (2014)

Fedin AI, et al. [TRIUMPH — phenotropil in chronic brain ischemia]. Zh Nevrol Psikhiatr Im S S Korsakova. 2014. PMID: 25726789.

Original source ↗ · PMID 25726789

What it supports: The largest dataset: 1,170 patients with chronic brain ischemia (age 45–65) treated with phenotropil 100 mg for 2–3 months in primary care; asthenia severity decreased significantly by the end of month 1 and held to month 3, with a greater than twofold reduction in symptom severity.
What it does not show: No control group, no blinding, no randomisation — an open observational programme; effect sizes from such designs run high on average.

[18]Controlled, non-randomised · n=4002010

Koval’chuk VV, et al. Zh Nevrol Psikhiatr Im S S Korsakova (2010)

Koval’chuk VV, et al. [Efficacy of phenotropil in the rehabilitation of stroke patients]. Zh Nevrol Psikhiatr Im S S Korsakova. 2010. PMID: 21626817.

Original source ↗ · PMID 21626817

What it supports: Four hundred ischemic-stroke patients: 200 received three courses of phenotropil 400 mg/day within complex rehabilitation over the year post-stroke versus 200 controls; restoration of neurologic function and activities of daily living reported significantly better in the main group (p<0.0001).
What it does not show: No randomisation or blinding stated in the abstract — a controlled but non-randomised comparison.

[19]Open-label · n=992005

Savchenko AIu, Zakharova NS, Stepanov IN Zh Nevrol Psikhiatr Im S S Korsakova (2005)

Savchenko AIu, Zakharova NS, Stepanov IN. [The phenotropil treatment of the consequences of brain organic lesions]. Zh Nevrol Psikhiatr Im S S Korsakova. 2005. PMID: 16447562.

Original source ↗ · PMID 16447562

What it supports: Ninety-nine patients with encephalopathy remote from stroke, brain trauma or glioma surgery, treated with phenotropil 200 mg/day for one month; reported improvements in pareses, motor coordination, memory, attention and mood, with an EEG normalisation trend.
What it does not show: No control group stated — an open-label, uncontrolled clinical report.

[20]Open controlled · TOLERANCE SIGNAL2014

Medvedev VE, Frolova VI, Epifanov AV Zh Nevrol Psikhiatr Im S S Korsakova (2014)

Medvedev VE, Frolova VI, Epifanov AV. [Phenotropil in cardiovascular patients with neurotic disorders]. Zh Nevrol Psikhiatr Im S S Korsakova. 2014. PMID: 25403298.

Original source ↗ · PMID 25403298

What it supports: The waning-effect evidence: in an open comparative study in cardiovascular patients with mild neurotic, somatoform, stress and depressive disorders, “the effect (in particular anxiolytic one) of phenotropil decreased after 4–8 weeks of treatment” — the published signal behind the tolerance discussion. Tolerability was described as satisfactory.
What it does not show: An open study of 70 patients total; a waning effect over weeks, consistent with — but not proof of — stimulant tolerance.

[21]Open · n=752013

Savenkov AA, Badalian OL, Avakian GN Zh Nevrol Psikhiatr Im S S Korsakova (2013)

Savenkov AA, Badalian OL, Avakian GN. [Nootropics and antioxidants in the complex therapy of symptomatic posttraumatic epilepsy]. Zh Nevrol Psikhiatr Im S S Korsakova. 2013. PMID: 23887448.

Original source ↗ · PMID 23887448

What it supports: Seventy-five patients with symptomatic focal posttraumatic epilepsy; phenotropil and mexidol within complex antiepileptic therapy; reported seizure reduction, cognitive and quality-of-life improvement, and no seizure aggravation of the kind typical of many nootropic drugs.
What it does not show: Design not stated in the abstract; appears open/observational; combination therapy confounds attribution.

[22]Controlled, non-randomised · n=612007

Bel’skaia GN, et al. Zh Nevrol Psikhiatr Im S S Korsakova (2007)

Bel’skaia GN, et al. [Complex treatment of epilepsy with phenotropil]. Zh Nevrol Psikhiatr Im S S Korsakova. 2007. PMID: 18379471.

Original source ↗ · PMID 18379471

What it supports: Thirty-one epilepsy patients on phenotropil 100 mg/day for two months added to standard antiepileptics versus thirty on antiepileptics alone; significant seizure decrease and EEG improvement reported in the main group.
What it does not show: No randomisation or blinding stated; small groups.

[23]Narrative review2024

Gromova OA, Torshin IY Zh Nevrol Psikhiatr Im S S Korsakova, 124(8):21-31 (2024)

Gromova OA, Torshin IY. [Pharmacological effects of fonturacetam (Actitropil) and prospects for its clinical use]. Zh Nevrol Psikhiatr Im S S Korsakova. 2024;124(8):21-31. PMID: 39269293.

Original source ↗ · PMID 39269293

What it supports: The rebranding-era review: surveys experimental and clinical work under the INN and the new Actitropil brand — cerebral ischemia, neurodegenerative disease, epilepsy, asthenia, mental disorders — claiming anxiolytic, antiasthenic, antidepressant, anti-inflammatory and anticonvulsant effects.
What it does not show: A narrative review, not a systematic one; claims are surveyed, not re-tested.

[24]Narrative review2023

Titova NV, et al. Zh Nevrol Psikhiatr Im S S Korsakova (2023)

Titova NV, et al. [Asthenia, mental fatigue and cognitive dysfunction]. Zh Nevrol Psikhiatr Im S S Korsakova. 2023. PMID: 37315240.

Original source ↗ · PMID 37315240

What it supports: A rationale review concluding that combination therapy of fonturacetam with a nicotinoyl-GABA/Ginkgo biloba preparation is “pathogenetically justified” — an argument from mechanism, cited here to show how the Russian literature frames the drug.
What it does not show: A pathogenetic-rationale argument, not trial data.

[25]Cochrane · class context · NULL2001

Flicker L, Grimley Evans G Cochrane Database Syst Rev, (2):CD001011 (2001)

Flicker L, Grimley Evans G. Piracetam for dementia or cognitive impairment. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2001;(2):CD001011. PMID: 11405971.

Original source ↗ · PMID 11405971

What it supports: The family context every honest carphedon page needs: for the parent compound piracetam, the Cochrane reviewers’ verbatim conclusion — “the evidence available from the published literature does not support the use of piracetam in the treatment of people with dementia or cognitive impairment. Although effects were found on global impression of change, no benefit was shown by any of the more specific measures.”
What it does not show: A piracetam review, not a phenylpiracetam one — no Cochrane review of phenylpiracetam exists; included as class context, not as a verdict on carphedon itself.

Safety and market quality

[26]Market analysis (Harvard/Mississippi)2021

Cohen PA, et al. Neurol Clin Pract, 11(3):e303-e307 (2021)

Cohen PA, et al. Presence of undeclared and unapproved drugs in cognitive enhancement supplements. Neurol Clin Pract. 2021;11(3):e303-e307. PMID: 34484905.

Original source ↗ · PMID 34484905

What it supports: The United States reality check: researchers bought “cognitive enhancement” supplements labelled with phenylpiracetam and other unapproved drugs online; declared quantities were inaccurate in 75% of quantified cases, and phenylpiracetam is classed as not approved for human use in the United States.
What it does not show: A ten-product analysis; it documents gray-market quality failures, not the pharmacology of the pure substance.

[27]Official-lab market surveillance2025

Vanhee C, et al. (OMCL network) J Xenobiot, 15(3):88 (2025)

Vanhee C, et al. Illicit nootropics intercepted by official medicines control laboratories (2020–2024). J Xenobiot. 2025;15(3):88. doi: 10.3390/jox15030088. PMID: 40558871.

Original source ↗ · doi:10.3390/jox15030088 · PMID 40558871

What it supports: Twelve official medicines control laboratories (the EU OMCL network plus Australia) document 159 illicit-nootropic samples from 2020–2024: phenylpiracetam intercepted as near-100%-purity bulk raw material, and the plain regulatory sentence — phenylpiracetam is available as a prescription medication in Russia and “not authorised for human use by any health authority in the EU or Australia”.
What it does not show: Seizure surveillance describes the illegal market, not therapeutic use; it does not assess any clinical effect.

Sport and anti-doping

[28]Regulatory list (live-checked)2026

World Anti-Doping Agency The Prohibited List (current edition) (2026)

World Anti-Doping Agency. The Prohibited List — S6 Stimulants, S6.A Non-Specified Stimulants: “Fonturacetam [4-phenylpiracetam (carphedon)]”, prohibited In-Competition. List page consulted live 2026-08-15.

Original source ↗

What it supports: The verbatim listing: “Fonturacetam [4-phenylpiracetam (carphedon)]” under S6.A non-specified stimulants, prohibited in-competition — the strictest stimulant tier, alongside amphetamine, cocaine and modafinil. Both the INN and the carphedon name appear in WADA’s own text.
What it does not show: A regulatory status, not a performance verdict: listing reflects stimulant pharmacology and detection, not demonstrated ergogenic effect in athletes.

[29]Anti-doping review (Catlin group)2023

Jędrejko K, Catlin O, et al. Drug Test Anal, 15(8):803-839 (2023)

Jędrejko K, Catlin O, et al. Unauthorized nootropic ingredients in supplements. Drug Test Anal. 2023;15(8):803-839. doi: 10.1002/dta.3529. PMID: 37357012.

Original source ↗ · doi:10.1002/dta.3529 · PMID 37357012

What it supports: The historical marker, verbatim: “The first nootropic prohibited in sport was fonturacetam (4-phenylpiracetam, carphedon) in 1998.” Also the review in which the INN-era naming — fonturacetam (4-phenylpiracetam, carphedon) — appears fully assembled.
What it does not show: A review statement of the 1998 listing; the 1998 list document itself was not fetched in the 2026-08-15 pass.

[30]Sport-ethics review2020

Smith AC, Stavros C, Westberg K Subst Use Misuse, 55(12):2064-2075 (2020)

Smith AC, Stavros C, Westberg K. Cognitive Enhancing Drugs in Sport: Current and Future Concerns. Subst Use Misuse. 2020;55(12):2064-2075. PMID: 32525422.

Original source ↗ · PMID 32525422

What it supports: The peer-reviewed framing that phenylpiracetam is the only racetam on the WADA Prohibited List, inside a wider ethics review of cognitive-enhancing drugs in sport.
What it does not show: An ethics/policy review; it documents status and debate, not performance data.

[31]Laboratory prevalence study2011

Strano Rossi S, Botre F J Sports Sci, 29(5):471-476 (2011)

Strano Rossi S, Botre F. Prevalence of stimulant use in a WADA-accredited laboratory (Rome), 2000–2009. J Sports Sci. 2011;29(5):471-476. PMID: 21279865.

Original source ↗ · PMID 21279865

What it supports: Real-world prevalence: across roughly 100,000 urine samples at the WADA-accredited Rome laboratory between 2000 and 2009, carphedon appeared among the stimulants found, alongside amphetamines, ephedrines and modafinil.
What it does not show: Detection prevalence, not usage rates in any sport; a positive sample says nothing about intent or effect.

[32]Documented doping case2006

Associated Press (wire report) AP via Fox News, 2006-02-16 (2006)

Associated Press. “Russian Biathlete Expelled From Torino for Doping.” 2006-02-16. Fetched live 2026-08-15.

Original source ↗

What it supports: The case that put carphedon on front pages: Olga Pyleva, Russia, biathlon — positive for the stimulant carphedon after the 15 km individual at Torino 2006; an IOC panel found a doping violation on 16 February 2006; expelled from the Games, silver medal stripped — the first doping case of those Olympics. A two-year IBU ban followed.
What it does not show: A news wire and federation record; the defence (an over-the-counter medication for an ankle injury, per the Russian Anti-Doping Committee head) is part of the same record.

[33]Documented doping case2005

cyclingnews.com “Hondo positive for Carphedon”, 2005-04-05 (2005)

cyclingnews.com. “Hondo positive for Carphedon.” 2005-04-05. Title verified live 2026-08-15; case chronology cross-checked against the public record.

Original source ↗

What it supports: The second documented case: Danilo Hondo, Germany, cycling — positive for carphedon at the 2005 Vuelta a Murcia; suspended and fired by Gerolsteiner; the sanction moved from two years to one and back to two when he lost his Court of Arbitration for Sport appeal in January 2006, before a Swiss civil court ended the suspension early.
What it does not show: Two concordant secondary sources; the CAS award itself was not fetched in the 2026-08-15 pass.

[34]IOC disciplinary decision2017

International Olympic Committee IOC press release, Oswald Commission, 2017-11-27 (2017)

IOC. “IOC sanctions five Russian athletes and publishes first full decision as part of the Oswald Commission findings.” 2017-11-27. Fetched live 2026-08-15.

Original source ↗

What it supports: Listed with a caveat the rest of the internet skips: the Oswald Commission sanctioned biathletes Olga Vilukhina and Yana Romanova over Sochi 2014 — but the IOC documents name no substance, the Court of Arbitration for Sport overturned Vilukhina’s individual-race disqualification in 2020 and restored her sprint silver, and this site does NOT count her as a carphedon case.
What it does not show: Included as a boundary marker against a widespread misattribution; whether carphedon was analytically involved could not be confirmed from any primary source.

Synthesis, analogues and methods

[35]Synthesis review2022

Han et al. Molecules (2022)

Han et al. Asymmetric Michael addition routes to beta-substituted GABA drugs. Molecules. 2022. PMID: 35744921.

Original source ↗ · PMID 35744921

What it supports: The structural framing: phenylpiracetam as a beta-substituted GABA derivative, and a benchmark target in modern asymmetric-synthesis methodology.
What it does not show: A synthetic-methods review; chemistry context, not pharmacology.

[36]Synthetic method2023

Wang, Chan, Chang Tetrahedron, 146:133648 (2023)

Wang, Chan, Chang. New synthesis of beta-aryl-GABA drugs. Tetrahedron. 2023;146:133648. doi: 10.1016/j.tet.2023.133648.

Original source ↗ · doi:10.1016/j.tet.2023.133648

What it supports: A 2023 methods paper building beta-aryl-GABA drugs — phenylpiracetam among them — as demonstration targets.
What it does not show: Crossref-verified at metadata level; a chemistry method, not a biological study.

[37]Synthetic method (2026)2026

J Org Chem authors J Org Chem (2026)

Photoredox annulation route to (±)-phenotropil. J Org Chem. 2026. PMID: 42101234.

Original source ↗ · PMID 42101234

What it supports: One of three independent 2026 chemistry groups demonstrating a new synthetic method by making phenotropil — continuing mainstream chemistry interest in the molecule.
What it does not show: Methodological showcase; the target choice signals interest, not any new biological finding.

[38]Synthetic method (2026)2026

Nat Chem authors Nature Chemistry (2026)

Asymmetric Beckmann-rearrangement route to (R)-phenotropil·HCl. Nat Chem. 2026. PMID: 41688603.

Original source ↗ · PMID 41688603

What it supports: A Nature Chemistry methods paper choosing (R)-phenotropil — the pharmacologically active enantiomer — as its demonstration target.
What it does not show: A synthetic-method demonstration; no pharmacology.

[39]Synthetic method (2026)2026

Chem Sci authors Chemical Science (2026)

Asymmetric nitrogen-insertion route to phenotropil. Chem Sci. 2026. PMID: 41221108.

Original source ↗ · PMID 41221108

What it supports: The third 2026 methods paper synthesising phenotropil as a showcase — three independent groups in one year.
What it does not show: A synthetic-method demonstration; no pharmacology.

[40]Comparative animal study2007

Tiurenkov IN, et al. Russian experimental pharmacology literature (2007)

Tiurenkov IN, et al. [Phenotropil versus piracetam in experimental cerebral ischemia]. 2007. PMID: 17523446.

Original source ↗ · PMID 17523446

What it supports: The head-to-head that exists only in animals: in experimental cerebral ischemia, phenylpiracetam outperformed piracetam on function retention, survival and cerebral-flow restoration.
What it does not show: Russian animal work; no human head-to-head trial against piracetam has ever been published.

[41]Radiation-accident model2016

Drachouv NN, Bykov VN, Seleznev SA Radiats Biol Radioecol, 56(1):64-72 (2016)

Drachouv NN, Bykov VN, Seleznev SA. [Palonosetron and phenotropil prophylaxis in acute radiation syndrome]. Radiats Biol Radioecol. 2016;56(1):64-72. PMID: 27245006.

Original source ↗ · PMID 27245006

What it supports: The only documented radiation link: phenotropil with palonosetron against the nausea-vomiting-diarrhoea stage of acute radiation syndrome in rats and dogs — framed explicitly as preserving work capacity in “individuals participating in elimination of the consequences of accidents associated with overexposure to radiation”. This is the closest documented link to the Chernobyl-liquidator story.
What it does not show: An animal study about future accident responders — NOT a record of human use at Chernobyl; no source for the liquidator-use claim was found anywhere.

[42]Analogue pharmacology2010

Tiurenkov IN, et al. Russian experimental pharmacology literature (2010)

Tiurenkov IN, et al. [RGPU-95, 4-chlorophenylpiracetam]. 2010. PMID: 21254591.

Original source ↗ · PMID 21254591

What it supports: The documented analogue landscape: RGPU-95 (4-chlorophenylpiracetam), reported at 5–10× potency in Russian preclinical work — the molecule’s immediate chemical family.
What it does not show: Preclinical Russian work on an analogue, not on carphedon itself.

[43]Sigma-1 review (analogue)2019

Vavers E, et al. Latvian Institute of Organic Synthesis (2019)

Vavers E, et al. Methylphenylpiracetam stereoisomers incl. (4R,5S) “E1R”, a sigma-1 positive allosteric modulator. 2019. PMID: 30941035.

Original source ↗ · PMID 30941035

What it supports: The second branch of the family: methylphenylpiracetam stereoisomers, including (4R,5S)-E1R, a sigma-1 positive allosteric modulator — evidence that this scaffold keeps yielding distinct pharmacology.
What it does not show: Analogue research; E1R is a different molecule from carphedon.